International Boundary Lines

Radcliffe Line ‐ This boundary line is between Indiaand Pakistan drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe in 1947.

Durand Line - It is between Pakistan and Afghanistan

McMahon Line ‐ The boundary line between India and China to which China does not approve.It was demarcated by Sir Henry McMahon

24th Parallel ‐ The line which Pakistan claims should be the Demarcation line between India and Pakistan,not accepted by India.

Hindenberg Line ‐ Boundary line between Germany and Poland to which German retreated in 1917 during the First World War.

Oder‐Neisse Line ‐ The boundary line between Poland and East Germany.

Mannerheim Line - It is between Russia and Finland.

Maginot Line - The boundary line is between France and Germany.

Siegfrid Line - The boundary line is between France and Germany.

17th Parallel ‐ The line which defines the boundary between North Vietnam and South Vietnam before the two were united.

38th Parallel ‐ The boundary line between North Korea and South Korea.

49th Parallel ‐ It is the boundary line between the United States of America and Canada.

Rocks

Rocks:

The solid part of the earth crust is called rocks.

Rocks may not always necessarily be hard.

Minerals are obtained from rocks.

Types of Rocks:

Igneous Rocks:

Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which form directly from the cooling of magma.

This is an exothermic process (it loses heat) and involves a phase change from the liquid(magma) to the solid state.

The earth is made of igneous rock - at least at the surface where our planet is exposed to the coldness of space.

Igneous rocks are given names based upon two things: composition (what they are made of) and texture (how big the crystals are).

These rocks are harder and granular.

There is no layer in igneous rocks and fossils are not found in igneous rocks.

Rocks formed by the cooling of the molten matter beneath the earth surface are called intrusiveigneous rocks and are crystalline rocks.

Sometimes the molten mater comes out on the earth surface and forming extrusive igneous rocks e.g. Obsidian, basalt.

Sedimentary rocks:

They are formed by deposition and sedimentation ofsediments over  a long period.

Sedimentary rocks are called secondary, because they are often the result of the accumulation of small pieces broken off of pre-existing rocks.

Sandstone, limestone, shale are some example of sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic rocks:

The metamorphic get their name from "meta" (change) and "morph" (form).

The nature of igneous and sedimentary rocks changes due the effects of tremendous heat or pressure and the new transformed rocks are called metamorphic rocks.

Earthquake:

The sudden tremors or shaking or the earth’s crust is called an earthquake.earthquakes:

The earth surface is made up of several plates.

When these moves plates moves, it will leads to earthquake.

Seismology is the branch of Geology which deals with the study of earthquake.

Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude of the earthquake.

Mercalli Scale is used to measure the intensity of the earthquake.

Seismic wave an elastic waves produced in the earth due to the earthquake.

The place where these seismic waves originate beneath the earth’s surface is called the focus the earthquake.

The epicentre is that point on the earth surface which is near to the focus.

Seismic waves are of three types i.e. Secondary waves, primary waves and Surface or long waves.

Volcano:

A volcano is a vent or fissure in Earth's crust through which lava, ash, rock and gases erupt.

The pouring out of the magma or molten rock through ground surface is called volcanic activities.

The opening at the earth surface through which these molten materials comes out with a large force is called Vent.

Types of Volcanic eruptions:

Central eruption:

This type of eruption is sometimes very explosive because the molten material or other materials are ejected through a narrow pipe with greater intensity.

This type of eruption leads to the formation of the conical or dome shaped hills.

Central eruption poured acidic lava.

Mt. kilimanjarao in Africa, Fujiyama in Japan and Vesuvius and mount Etna in Italy are some example of mountains formed due to central eruptions.

Fissure Eruption:

When a large crack or fissure is developed in the ground surface then the hot lava and other material pour out with small speed and slowly.

Lava spread over a large distance.

The poured lava cools down over a period of time and leads to the formation of Basalt Plateau.

In Maharashtra the fertile black regur soil has been formed from basalt rocks.

Mountains:

A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a peak.

A mountain is generally steeper than a hill.

Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism.

The height of the mountains is greater than 600m.

Types of mountains:

Block Mountains:

Block mountains are created when faults or cracks in the Earth’s crust force materials upward.

Block Mountains usually have a steep front side and then a sloping back side.

Black forest(Germany), Vindhyanchal and Satpura in India, salt range of Pakistan are some example of block mountains.

Fold Mountains:

Fold Mountains are formed when two of the Earth’s tectonic plates collide head on.

Fold mountains are wave like mountains which have numerous peaks and low.

Himalayas, Ural, Alps, Rockies, Andes etc.

Residual Mountains:

Such mountains are formed as a result of weathering. E.g. Aravali, Nilgari, Parsnath Hills.

Accumulated Mountains:

These are formed due to accumulation of sand, soil, rocks, lava etc. on the earth crust, e.g. Sand Dunes.

More from us:

Geography Miscellaneous Notes part 2 for SSC CGL

All the Important Rivers

River

River is the biggest source of water. Rivers provide us water to drink, irrigation, electricity, cook, clean things and easy & cheap transportation.  It is also a source of fresh water that flowing naturally towards an ocean, lake, sea or another river. Rivers flow in channels. The bottom of channel is called the bed and sides of the channel are called the banks. Sometimes a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water.

Rivers begin at their source in higher ground such as mountains or hills, where rain water or melting snow collects and forms tiny streams. When one stream meets another and they merge together, the smaller steam is known as a tributary. It takes many tributary streams to form a river.

As a river flows, it carries along material or debris, called its load. A river’s load includes rocks, stones and other large particles, which are washed along the river bed.  Finer particles float in the water. A river grows larger as it collects water from more tributaries along its course. The river ends at a mouth. In larger rivers there is often also a wider floodplain shaped by flood waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel.

Important Rivers in World:-

There are so many rivers in all over world. The rivers are determined by its length.  The River Nile is the longest riverin the world. It measures 6,695 kilometers from its source Burundi, along the White Nile, to its delta on the Mediterranean Sea. Officially, the shortest river is the D River, Oregan, USA, which is just 37 meters long.

The biggest river in the world is the Amazon, measured by the amount of water that flows down in it. On average 120,000 cubic meters of water flows out of its mouth every second.

The longest river of Europe is the River Volga. It flows primarily in a southerly direction through Russia into the Caspian Sea.

Important Rivers in India:

The important rivers of India are Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Indus, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Narmada and Tapti.

Ganga: Ganga is the most holy river according to Hindu. It has started from the Gangotri in the Himalayas and poured into the Bay of Bengal by travelling of around 2525 km. It is ranked 3^rd largest river in the world. There are a number of cities had been developed across the banks of Ganga like Pataliputra, Kashi, Allahabad, Varanasi, Kolkata etc. It had also created the World’s largest delta in West Bengal named as Sundarban delta.

Yamuna: Yamuna River had originated from Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas, then travels across several states and merged into the Ganga at Triveni, Allahabad. Its total length is 1376 km. Yamuna River’s water contributed nearly 70% of Delhi’s water supply. The Taj Mahal is situated on the banks of Yamuna River.

Brahmaputra: Brahmaputra River is originated from Angsi Glacier, the northen Himalayas in Tibet, then entered into the Arunachal Pradesh to Assam and then merges with the Padma river in Bangladesh. Its length is around 2900 km and plays an important role in the irrigation and transportation. It emptied into the Bay of Bengal.

Indus River: The Indus River is a historically famous in Asia. It originated from the Tibetan Plateau, and then flows through the Ladakh then entered into Pakistan and finally merge into the Arabian Sea after travelling a distance of 3180 km.

Mahanadi River: Mahanadi is a major river in the state of Chhattisgarh and Odisha. Mahanadi’s water is used in the irrigation and drinking purpose, it is also called the ruin of Orissa due its devastating floods over the years but till Hirakud Dam was constructed. Its total length is 858 km.

Godavari: Godavari is the longest river in the southern India and 2^nd largest in India after Ganga. It is originated from Maharashtra and flows through Andhra Pradesh, then merges into the Bay of Bengal after travelling a distance of 1465 km.

Krishna: The 3^rd longest river in India after Ganga and Godavari, Krishna River which is originated from Mahabaleswar in Maharashtra and flows through the state of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and finally merges into the Bay of Bengal by travelling a distance of 1400 km.

Kaveri: The Kaveri River is one of the large rivers in India which is originated from Talakaveri in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and flows through the states of Karnataka & Tamilnadu, finally merges into Bay of Bengal by travelling a distance of 765 km.

Narmada: Narmada River is the 5^th Longest in the Indian sub-continent. It is also called the Life line of Madhya pradesh due to its huge contributions. Narmada River is originated from Narmada Kund, Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh and merges into the Arabian Sea near Gujarat after travelling a distance of 1312 km.

Tapti: Tapti River is one of the major rivers in Central India. Its total length is around 724 km which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra and finally merges into the Gulf of Cambay of Arabian Sea near Gujarat.

Water Transport

India has an extensive network of inland waterways in the form of rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks. The waterways of the country have been divided into internal waterways and oceanic waterways.

The following waterways have been declared as National Waterways:

NW1- Allahabad to Haldia - 1620 Km

NW2- Sadia to Dhubri on Brahmaputra River - 891 Km

NW3- Kollam to Kottapuram - 168 km

NW4- Kakinada to Marakkannam along Godavari and Krishna river - 1095 km

NW5- Mangalgarhi to Paradeep and Talcher to Dhamara along Mahanadi and Brahmini - 623 Km

12 - Major Ports in India

Western Coast

Tidal Port – (Child of Partition) – Gujarat

Mumbai – (Busiest and biggest) - Maharashtra

JL Nehru- (Fastest growing) - Maharashtra

Marmugao – (Naval base also) – Goa

Mangalore – (Exports Kudremukh iron–ore) – Karnataka

Cochin – (Natural harbour) – Kerala

Eastern Coast

Paradip - (exports raw iron to japan) - Odisha

Vishakhapatnam – (deepest port) – Andhra Pradesh

Chennai – ( Most modern in private hands) – TamilNadu

Ennore – (Most modern in Private hands) - Tamil Nadu

Tuticorin - (Southernmost) – Tamil Nadu

Port Blair – (Strategically important) - Andaman andNicobar Islands

Air Transport

JRD Tata was the first person to take a solo flight form Mumbai to Karachi in 1931.

In 1935, the ‘Tata Air Lines’ started its operation between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937 between Mumbai and Delhi.

In 1953, all the private airline companies were nationalized and Indian Airlines and Air India came into existence.

Vayudoot Limited started in 1981 as a private air carrier and later on it merged with Indian Airlines.

International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority were merged on 1995 to form Airports Authority of India.

The Authority manages the Civil Aviation Training College at Allahabad and National Institute of Aviation Management and Research at Delhi.

12 - International Airports in India

Rajiv Gandhi International Airport – Hyderabad

Calicut International Airport – Calicut

Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport - Mumbai

Kempe Gowda International Airport – Bengaluru

Goa Airport in Vasco di Gama city - Goa

Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport – Kolkata

Thiruvananthapuram International Airport – Thiruvananthapuram

Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport – Guwahati

Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport – Ahmedabad

Indira Gandhi International Airport – Delhi

Chennai International Airport – Chennai

Shri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport – Amritsar

IMPORTANT TEMPLES OF INDIA

Temple which is called “Mandira” in Sanskrit is a house of workship. Temples in India reflect the cultural glory and history of a place.

In India, temple is considered as a place where human spiritually connect with God. Temples are built on the principles of vastushastra, known as “Shilpa Shashtra”. It is a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos.

1. Amarnath Temple

Located at- Jammu and Kashmir

Discovered- 150 years ago.

Primary Deity-  Lord Shiva

Famous For- The temple is famous for lord Shiva’s Linga which is in the cave. The cave is situated at an altitude of 3,888 m  (12,756ft), about 141 km from Srinagar and one can reach through Pahalgam Town. The cave is covered with snow whole year except for a short period of time in summer when it is open for pilgrims.

The cave waxes during May to August, as snow melts in the Himalayan above the cave and the resultant water seeps into the rocks that form the caves. It is also claimed that the Shiva Linga grows and shrinks with the phases of moon, although there is no scientific evidence for this belief.

It is also claimed this is the cave where shiva explained the secrecy of life and eternity to his divine consort, Parvati. Two other ice formation’s also represent Load Ganesha.

There is a annual pilgrimage for this cave to workship the ice stalagmite Lingam.

Yatra- The beginning of the annual pilgrimage, called Amarnath Yatra is marked by ‘pratham pujan’ to invoke the blessings of Shir Amarnathji. It is a popular yatra destination for Hindus. Pilgrims visit the holy place during the 45 days season around the festival of Shravani Mela in July- August.

2. Golden Temple

Located at – Amritsar, Punjab

Built in – Dec 1585 AD and completed in 1604

Primary Deity-  Sri Harmandir Sahibs

Founded in 1574 by the fourth Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das, the fifth Guru, Guru Arjan designed the Harmandir Sahib to be built in the center of this holy tank.

Famous For- The gurudwara is surrounded by the large lake and it is believed that it consists Amrit and is fed by the Ravi River and by this name Amrit the city named “Amritsar”. There are four entrances to the gurudwara which signifies the importance of acceptance and openness of all the religions regardless of their colour, creed or gender. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was a major donor of wealth and materials for the shrine and he is the person who platted the Temple with Gold in 1830, hence it is called “Golden Temple”.

While visiting the temple, the devotees are requested to dress well in the temple, wearing head covering which is a sign of respect to the lord, Not wearing shoes. One should sit on the ground while in the Darbar Sahib as a sign of deference to both the Guru Granth Sahib and God.

Langar- It is called Guru ka langar. It has ensured participation of women and childrens in task of service for mankind. Women plays an important role in the preparation of meals and children help in serving food to the devotees.

It is very generous, that everyone is welcomed in the Langar. Each family prepare food for a week and feed thousands of people daily. All the preparation, the cooking and the washing up is done by the helpers in the temple. The langar is free of cost for all, the temple get fund from the deposit from pilgrims.

3. Markandeshwar Temple

Located at- Shahbad Markanda, Dist- Kurukshetra, Haryana

Primary Diety- Lord Shiva and Markandeya

Built in- 12^th Century AD

Famous for—The temple is said to be at the place where Markendeya worshiped at the time of his destined death at the tender age of 16 years. He wished to win over Lord Yama, the God of death and change his destiny. When Yama came to take his life, he clung to Shiva Linga and the noose fell over the Lingam. Lord Shiva appeared and pierced Yama with a trident and saved his devotee. And Shiva blessed Markandeya to live immortal life as Chiranjeev.

The temple is made of marble and has an exterior arch welcoming pilgrims. It has a Shiva Linga with Lord Shiva’s idol and young Markandeya in a prayerful posture. The walls of the temple depict a scene of Lord Shiva saving the child Markandeya from Yama, the Lord of death.

Pilgrims visit the temple in large numbers in the month of Shravan (July/August).

4. Mahabodhi Temple

Located at- Bodhgaya, Bihar

Discovered – 260 BC

Architect- Ashoka

Primary Deity- Lord Buddha

Famous For- Mahabodhi Temple is a Buddhist Stupalocated at bodhgaya, 116km from Capital of Bihar, Patna. The temple is built in bricks and which is still survives today. The ground level of the temple is 45 meters square, stretching up in a pyramid shape that ends in a smaller square platform. The central tower of Mahabodhi stands 180 feet (54 meters) tall. The brickwork on the outside of the temple depicts scenes from the life of the Buddha.

Inside the temple is a colossal image of a seated Buddha touching the earth with his right hand (a gesture known as the earth-witness mudra). In this posture the Buddha accomplished the supreme enlightenment. The statue is of black stone but it has been covered in gold and dressed in bright orange robes. The temple covers an area of nearly 4.8 hectares and 55 m in height.

Bodhi Tree- Immediately next to the Mahabodhi Temple is the Bodhi Tree, a descendent of the very tree under which the Buddha was enlightened, and the Jewel Walk, marking the place where the Buddha is said to have practiced walking meditation for seven days after his enlightenment.

In 2002, Mahabodhi Temple, located in Bodh Gaya, became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

5. Birla Mandir

Located at- Jaipur, Rajasthan

Built in – Year 1988, by Birla Group of Industries.

Primary Deity- Lord Laxmi Narayan

Famous for-  Originally it is known as Lakshmi Narayan Temple and it is situated below the Moti Dungri Fort in Jaipur. It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi. Built in pure white marble, it is built with modern approach. Inside the temple, Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi idols can be seen.

Temple represent architectural beauty as its delicate carving of Hindu symbols and ancient quotes from the Geeta and Upanishads ornaments the walls of the temple. Apart from religious idols, pictures and figures of several religious saints, philosophers and historical achievers, like Socrates, Buddha, Zarathustra and Confucius, are also included in the temple.

The best time to visit this temple is between the months of October to March. In this temple, 'Janmashtami', the birth anniversary of Lord Krishna, is celebrated with great enthusiasm.

6. Somnath Temple

Located at – Prabha patan near Vereval in Saurashtra, Gujarat

Opened – May 1951

Built by-  Shri. Vallabhbhai Patel (latest)

Primary Deity- Lord Shiva

Famous For- Meaning of Somnath is the protector of God Moon. Somnath Temple is also known as Prabhas Patan, Deo Pattan or Somnath temple and the Shrine Eternal. It is one of the 12 jyotirlinga Shrines of God Shiva.

It is believed that the temple is built by King Somraj, the moon god out of gold. It was rebuilt by Ravana in silver. Again Lord Krishna built in wood. The apex of temple rises to a height of 155 feet. There is a kalash (pot vessel) on the top, which measures 10 tons. The flag mast on this pinnacle is 37 feet long and is changed thrice during the day. The temple is situated at very extraordinary place there is no land in between Somnath Seashore to Antartica.

Somnath Temple was destroyed  many times by various rulers and kings. But few kings of Gujarat renovated this temple too many times. In 1947 Sardar vallabhbhai Patel renovated Somnath Temple.

Somnath is famous for its architechture, the present temple, kailash Mahameru Prasada is built in the chalukya style of temple architecture and reflects the inherent skill of Sompuras,Gujarat’s master masons.

7. Siddhivinayak Temple

Located at – Prabhadevi, Mumbai, Maharashtra

Year Built- November19, 1801, by professional contractor, late Mr. Laxman Vithu Patil

Primary Deity- Lord Ganesha

Famous For- Late Deubai Patil who was a rich lady of Agri Samaj from Matunga. Although she was rich but had no child. So she humbly request lord ganesha “Although I cannot have a child, let other ladies who are childless get the pleasure of child on visiting the temple and praying you”. Looking at the successful subsequent history of the temple, it appears like Ganesha nodded. Therefore, it is famous for “Navasacha Ganapati” in Marathi.

The idol of Shree Shidhivinayak was carved out of a single black stone and 2’6 (750mm) and 2’ (600mm) wide with the trunk on the right. This is rather unusal appearance of Lord Ganesha. The upper right and left hands hold a lotus and an axe respectively, while the lower right and left hands hold a rosary (japmala) and bowl full of “Modak” respectively. On both sides of the Lord Ganesha Idol, idols of Riddhi and Siddhi goddesses who are appearing like peeping out from Ganesha Idol from behind.

Important Deserts of the world

Desert: A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life in desert their is less precipitation

1. Continent: Antarctica

Desert Name: Antartic

2. Continent: Asia, Europe, North America

Desert Name: Arctic desert

3. Continent: Asia

Desert Name: Karakum, Thar desert, Kyzylkum, Taklamakan, Arabian, Dasht-e Kavir, Dasht-e Lut, Gobi Desert

4. Continent: Africa

Desert Name: Kalahari, Namib, Sahara,

5. Continent: Australia

Desert Name: Gibson, Great Sandy, Great Victoria, Simpson, Tanami

6. Continent: Europe

Desert Name: Tabernas Desert

7. Continent: North America

Desert Name: Great Basin, Mojave, Sonoran

8. Continent: South America

Desert Name: Atacama, Patagonian

Important Points to be remember about Important desert of the world

Desert name: Antartic

Largest desert in the world

Largest cold desert in the world

Area: 1,38,29,430 square km

Type: polar

Desert name: Arctic desert

Second largest desert in the world

Area: 1,37,26,937 square km

Type: polar

Desert name: Gobi

Present in Asia

Area: 1,300,000 square km

Cold winter desert

Desert name: Sahara

Largest hot desert

Present in Africa

Subtropical desert

94,00,000 square km

Desert name: Atacama

The Driest Desert on the Earth

Area: 1,40,000 square km

Present in Chile

Type: Cool Coastal

Desert name: Great Basin

Type: Cold Winter

Present in US

Area: 4,92,000 square km

Types of Question Can be asked in Railways, SSC & Other Competitive Exams

Which is the largest desert of the world: Antarctica desert

Which is the largest cold desert in the world: Antarctica desert

Which is the largest hot desert of the world: Sahara desert

Which is the largest desert of India: Thar desert

Which is the largest driest desert of the world:Atacama desert (present in chile in south America)

Which is the second largest desert of the world: Arctic desert

Where is Taklamakan desert: China

Folk dances of different states

1 Andhra Pradesh

Kuchipudi

Kolattam

2 Arunachal Pradesh

Bardo Chham

3 Assam

Bihu dance

Jhumur Naach

Bagurumba

Ali Ai Ligang

4 Jharkhand

Karma/Munda

5 Chhattisgarh

Panthi

Raut Nacha

Gaur Maria Dance

6 Goa

Tarangamel

Dashavatara

Dekhni

Dhalo

Dhangar

Fugdi

Ghodemodni

Goff

Jagar

Kunbi

Mando

Musal Khel

Perni Jagar

Ranamale

Romta Mel

Divlyan Nach (Lamp dance)

Veerabhadra

Morulo

Tonayamel

7 Gujarat

Garba

Raas

Tippani Dance

8 Himachal Pradesh

Kinnauri Nati

Namgen

9 Haryana

Saang

Chhathi Dance

Khoria Dance

Ras Leela

Dhamal Dance

Ghoomar

Jhumar Dance

Loor Dance

Gugga Dance

Teej Dance

Phag dance

Chaupaiya

10 Karnataka

Yakshagana

Bayalata

Dollu Kunitha

Veeragaase dance

11 Jammu and Kashmir

Kud

Dumhal

12 Kerala

Mohiniyattam

Kathakali

Thirayattam

Theyyam

Thullal

Koodiyattam

Duffmuttu or Aravanmuttu

Oppana

Kaikottikali or Thiruvathirakali

Margamkali

Thitambu Nritham

Chakyar Koothu

Chavittu Nadakam

13 Madhya Pradesh

Tertali

Charkula

Jawara

Matki Dance

Phulpati Dance

Grida Dance

Maanch

14 Maharashtra

Pavri Nach

Lavni

Dhangri Gaja

Povadas

Koli

Tamasha

Dindi

Kala

Dangi

15 Manipur

Thang Ta

Dhol cholom

16 Mizoram

Cheraw Dance

17 Nagaland

Chang Lo or Sua Lua

18 Odisha

Ghumura Dance

Ruk Mar Nacha (& Chhau dance)

Goti Pua

Nacni

Odissi

19 Western Odisha

Baagh Naach or Tiger Dance

Dalkhai

Dhap

Ghumra

Karma Naach

Keisabadi

20 Puducherry

Garadi

21 Punjab

Bhangra

Giddha

Malwai Giddha

Jhumar

Karthi

Kikkli

Sammi

Dandass

Ludi

Jindua

22 Rajasthan

Ghoomar

Kalbelia

Bhavai

Kachchhi Ghodi

23 Sikkim

Singhi Chham

24 Tamil Nadu

Bharatanatyam

Kamandi or Kaman Pandigai

Devarattam

Kummi

Kolattam

Karagattam or Karagam

Mayil Attam or Peacock dance

Paampu attam or Snake Dance

Oyilattam

Puliyattam

Poikal Kudirai Attam

Bommalattam

Theru Koothu

25 Tripura

Hojagiri

26 West Bengal

Gambhira

Kalikapatadi

Nacni

Alkap

Domni

CHOW: CHOW belongs to PURULIA in West Bengal

Some other Major Folk Dances of India:

Ghoomar (Rajasthan, Haryana)

Koli (Maharashtra and Goa)

Padayani (Kerala)

Kathak (North India)

Types of Winds

Winds:

The Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun.

Sometimes the wind blows gently, refreshing us. At other times, it blows strongly creating storms that cause widespread damages.

We need measurements of two quantities: direction and speed, to give a description of the wind.

Types of Winds:

Trade Winds:

A wind blowing steadily towards the equator from the north-east in the northern hemisphere or the southeast in the southern hemisphere, especially at sea.

They blow from the Subtropical High-Pressure Belt to the Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt in the tropics between 30°. North and 30° South latitudes.

They blow as the N.E. Trades in the Northern Hemisphere and as the S.E. Trades in the Southern Hemisphere.

The name "Trade" is derived from a nautical expression "to blow tread" meaning to blow along a regular path or "tread".

Westerlies:

They blow from the Sub-tropical high-Pressure Belt to the Sub-polar low-Pressure Belt in the temperate latitudes between 30° and 60°, on either side of the Equator.

They are more constant and stronger in the Southern Hemisphere because there are no large landmasses to interrupt them.

In places, they become so strong that these winds are known as the Roaring Forties or the Brave West Winds and the Furious Fifties.

The belts of the Westerlies move north and south following the Sun's movement. These are known as Westerlies because they blow out of the west.

 Polar Winds:

They blow from the Polar High-Pressure Belt to the Subpolar Low-Pressure Belt between latitudes 60° and the poles on both sides of the Equator.

They winds blow from the east to form the Polar Easterlies.

They are more regular in the Southern Hemisphere.

Polar winds are extremely cold and dry.

Climatic Winds or Periodic Winds:

These winds change their direction along with a change in time or change in climate.

Land and sea breezes and the Monsoon winds are typical examples of periodic winds.

Monosoon Winds:

Monsoon winds are seasonal winds characterized by a complete reversal in their direction from one season to another.

They blow from the sea to the land in summer.

They blow from the land to the sea in winter.

Forests:

They are of the following types:

Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests:
Such forests are found in the equatorial and the tropical regions with more than 200 cm annual rainfall. The leaves of trees in such forests are very wide. Ex-Red wood, palm etc.

Tropical Semi-Deciduous Forests:
Such forests receive rainfall less than 150 cm. Sangwan, saal, bamboo etc. are found in such forests.

Temperate mixed Forests:
Such forests are a mixture of trees and shrubs. Corks, Oak etc. are the major trees of these forests.

Coniferous Forests or Taiga:
These are evergreen forests. The trees, in these forests, have a straight trunk, conical shape with relatively short branches and small needle-like leaves. Example-Pine, Fir etc.

Tundra Forests:
Such forests are covered with snow. Only Mosses, a few sledges and Lichens grow here in the summers. This type of vegetation is chiefly confined to the northern hemisphere (e.g. in Eurasia, North America, and Greenland Coast).

Mountainous Forests: Vegetation varies according to altitude.

Pastures (or Grasslands):

They can be divided into two types:

Tropical Pastures and

Temperate Pastures

Tropical Pastures: They have different names in different countries.

Savanna in Africa,

Campos in Brazil,

Lanos in Venezuela and Columbia.

Temperate Pastures:

They are known by the following names-

Prairies in USA and Canada,

Pampas in Argentina,

Veld in South Africa,

Rangelands or Downs in Australia and Newzealand

Steppes in Eurasia (Ukraine, Russia).

Physical Divisions of the Indian Subcontinent

A chain of high mountains radiates out from thePamir Knot which lies just in the north of India.

In these mountains, the Hindukush, the Sulaiman, and the Kirthar in the East and the Himalayas in the west separate the Indian subcontinent from rest of Asia.

Indian subcontinent can be divided into following physical divisions:

The Great Mountain Wall of the North

The Great Northern Plains

The Great Peninsular Plateau

The Coastal Plains

The Great Indian Desert

The Island Groups.

The Great Mountain wall of the North:

The Himalayas, the highest mountain wall of the world, are situated on the northern boundary of India like an arc.

From west to east the Himalayas are 2500 km long. The average breadth of the Himalayas is between 250 km to 400 km.

Mount Everest, the highest peak in the word, lies in these mountains in Nepal.

Division of the Himalayas

The Himalayas consist of three parallel mountain ranges:

(i) The Greater Himalayas

(ii) The Lesser Himalayas and

(iii) The Outer Himalayas.

The Greater Himalayas (or Himadri)

This is the loftiest of the three ranges of Himalayas.

Mount Everest lies in this range.

These snow-covered mountains give birth to many glaciers.

The Ganga originates from this glacier.

The Leasser Himalayas (for the Himachal Himalayas):

South of the Greater Himalayas, the range also lies parallel to it from west to east.

This ranges 60 to 80 km wide and its average height ranges between 3500 to 4500 meters.

Tourist centers like Shimla, Mussoorie, and Nainitalare situated in this range

The Outer Himalayas (or Shiwaliks):

This is the southernmost and the third parallel range of the Himalayas with an average height of 900 to 1200 meters.

Its breadth is only 10 to 15 km. Shivalik range is broader in the west.

Heights of Major Mountain Peaks in India

*represents the mountains situated in PAK.

The Great Nothern Plains:

The Northern plains are divided into three sub-divisions. These are the Punjab and Haryana plains. The Ganga plains and the Brahmaputra valley.

The Ganga plains form the largest lowland drained by thy Ganga and its tributaries.

The Yamuna is the most important tributary of the Ganga.

The Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Tista are other tributaries of the Ganga.

The Sone and the Damodar are tributaries of the Ganga while the Chambal and the Betwa are tributaries of the Yamuna from the peninsular plateau.

The Ganga plain has an extremely gentle slope. Parts of the plain are subject to floods in the rainy season. In the lower course, the Ganga divides itself into tributaries to form a large delta along with the Brahmaputra.

The Punjab and Haryana plains represent a part of the Indus basin.

A low watershed separates these plains from the Ganga plains.

The Great Pensinsular Plateau:

Anamudi or Anaimudi (2695 m) is the highest peak of the Peninsula.

The Deccan plateau includes the area to the south of the Vindhyas.

The western edge of the plateau rises steeply from the Arabian Sea to form the Western Ghats (which includes the Shahydri).

The Deccan plateau slopes gently towards the east. The surface of the plateau is dissected into a rolling upland by a number of rivers.

The elevation ranges from 300 to 900 meters.

The eastern edge of the plateau is known as theEastern Ghats.

The north-western region of the Deccan plateau is covered by nearly horizontal sheets of lava.

This region is called 'Deccan trap region'. The Deccan plateau is drained by many long east flowing rivers.

These rivers originate in the Western Ghats, flow towards the east and enter the Bay of Bengal.

The Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna and the Cauvery are the major rivers that have built deltas along the coast.

The Narmada and the Tapti rivers are west flowing.

Both the rivers enter the Arabian Sea along the Gujarat coast.

These rivers do not have deltas.

Major Plateaus: Marwar Upland, Central Highland, Bundelkhand, Malwa Plateau, Baghelhand, Chhotanagpur Plateau (Hazaribagh Plateau, Ranchi Plateau, and Raj Mahal Hills), Meghalaya Plateau, Deccan Plateau, Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka Plateau, Telengana Plateau, Chhatisgarh Plain.

The Coastal Plains

Narrow strips of flat land on eastern and western coasts are known as the East Coastal Plain and theWest Coastal Plain respectively.

The West Coastal Plain

This plain which lies between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats spreads from Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.

It is broader in the north and narrower in the south. This uneven plain has been dissected by many fast-flowing rivers.

Its northern part from Gujarat to Goa is called Konkan, while southern part from Goa to Kanyakumari is known as Malabar. Several lagoons (salt water lakes separated from the main sea by sandbars and spits) are found on the coastal plain.

Important ports developed on its coast from north to south are Kandla, Mumbai, New Jawahar Port Mumbai, Marmagao, Mangalore, and Cochin.

The East Coastal Plain:

This broader coastal plain spreads along the Bay of Bengal from Odisha in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.

Its northern part is known as Northern Circar plainsand the southern part is called Coromandel Coast.Rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery form deltas on this plain.

This coast is famous for rice cultivation.

A large number of lagoons are also found here.

Chilka and Pulicat lakes are fine examples of lagoons on our east coast.

The Great Indian Desert:

It lies to the west of the Aravali range.

It extends over major part of Rajasthan and Sindhi in Pakistan.

This desert does not get much rain as the Aravali range run parallel to the south-western monsoon winds.

It is in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal current.

Lake Sambhar is found here.

The Island Groups

Lakshadweep is a group of 36 coral islands in the Arabian Sea.

It is located 300 km to the west of the coast of Kerala.

Andaman and Nicobar Island are a group of about 324 islands.

Most of these islands are uninhabited.

Andaman and Nicobar islands are separated by the Ten Degree Channel because 10°N latitude passes through this place.

Important Facts of Solar System

We live on the planet named ‘Earth’. Likewise, Earth also exists in its home with other 7 planets, only star ‘Sun’ and many other small objects called asteroids, comets, dwarf planets, meteors etc. So basically the Solar system is a system of Sun, 8 planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, meteors and comets under the gravitational influence of the Sun.

Origin

There are 3 to 4 major theories of the evolution of the universe and ultimately of the solar system. The prominent theory among all of these is Big Bang theory.

According to this theory proposed by Georges Lemaitre, the universe is evolved from a small singularity and then expands over the next 13.8 billion years and still expanding.

It led to the formation of many billions of galaxies, solar systems, stars etc.

Our solar system lies in a spiral-shaped galaxy called ‘Milky Way’. The nearest galaxy to us is ‘Andromeda’.

Generally, there is a Black hole at the centre of every galaxy. ‘Sagittarius A’ is the black hole at the centre of Milky Way.

Solar System

In our solar system, 8 planets and many other celestial bodies revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.

The dwarf planet named Pluto was removed from the list of the planets by the International Astronomical Union in 2006.

Sun is the powerhouse of the solar system. It is the only source of energy in the solar system.

Planet Mercury is nearest to the sun while Neptune is the farthest planet from the sun.

There is an asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Planets inside the belt are distinctly different from those outside in terms of size, mass, and composition etc.

Planets inside the belt are called as Terrestrial planets and they are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Planets outside the best are called as Jovian planets and they are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Terrestrial planets are nearer to the sun, with metallic minerals and rock crust, with a thin atmosphere and have less number of natural satellites. While Jovian planets are away from Sun, made up of hot gases, have rings around them, and have a large number of natural satellites.

Facts about Sun and Planets

1. Sun

The only star in our solar system and powerhouse of the solar system.

Composed of Hydrogen (73%), Helium (25%) gases and other metals. Sun carries almost 99% mass of our solar system.

Approximately 15 crore Kilometres further away from Earth. It takes around 8 minutes 30 seconds for light at the speed of 3 lakh Km/sec to reach the earth.

Temperature at surface= 5800 K or 5600 degree Celsius.

Temperature at the centre= 15.7 million K

2. Mercury

Closest planet to the Sun and very hot planet.

Smallest planet in the solar system with a diameter of 4900 Km.

Fastest Planet with speed of 172500 Km per hour to complete revolution around Sun in 88 days.

The planet with no water and gases like Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide.

3. Venus

Hottest planet in the solar system with the surface temperature of 478 degree Celsius.

Also known as “Earth’s Twin”. It is because of similarity in size and mass between Venus and Earth.

One of the two planets in the solar system which rotate around the axis in a Clockwise direction.

Brightest Star in the Solar system. It can be seen in morning and evening with open eyes. So known as “Evening Star” and “Morning Star”.

4. Earth

The only Planet to give support to life with a pleasant atmosphere.

Also known as “Blue Planet” because of the presence of water on it.

It has one natural satellite named “Moon”.

5. Mars

Known as “Red Planet” because of Iron-rich red soil.

Second smallest planet in the solar system after Mercury.

Has two natural moons “Phobos” and “Deimos”.

Has thin atmosphere and surface with valleys, craters, deserts and ice caps etc.

“Olympus Mons” – Largest volcano and the tallest mountain in solar system lies on Mars.

6. Jupiter

Largest planet of the solar system with the shortest rotation

Has atmosphere filled with Hydrogen, Helium and other gases

The third brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus.

Great Red Spot, a giant storm in the solar system exists on this planet.

Has at least 69 moons, including 4 large Galilean Moons “Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto” which were discovered by Galileo. “Ganymede” is the largest among them.

It has an unclear ring around it.

7. Saturn

Second largest planet in the solar system and a gas giant.

Has bright and concentric rings around it which are made up of tiny rocks and pieces of Ice.

Saturn can float on water because it has less densitythan water.

Has at least 62 moons and Titan is the largest among them.

8. Uranus

Has the third- largest planetary radius and fourth largest planetary mass in the Solar system.

Greenish in colour.

Discovered by William Herschel in 1781.

Known as “Ice Giant”. The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of Hydrogen and Helium primarily, but it also contains more water, ammonia etc.

Has coldest planetary atmosphere in the solar system.

Rotates clockwise on its axis like Venus but unlike other planets

Has at least 25 moons. Famous moons- Miranda, Ariel and Umbriel

9. Neptune

Farthest planet from the Sun.

It is also “Ice Giant”. Atmosphere primarily composed of Hydrogen and Helium.

Bluish in colour because of Methane.

Fourth largest planet and the third most- massive planet in the solar system

Discovered by Johann Galle and Urbain Le Verrier in 1846. The only planet in the solar system found by Mathematical Predictions.

Has known 14 satellites. Famous moon – Triton.

10. Pluto

As per the new definition of Planets determined by International Astronomical Union (IAU), Pluto has been omitted from the list of planets in 2006.

Pluto is considered as a dwarf planet (size between planets and asteroids) now and it is a member of Kuiper Belt.

Kuiper Belt is a spherical boundary outside the orbit of Neptune containing a number of asteroids, rocks, and comets.

Other Space Objects

1. Asteroids

These are small objects; rocks (mostly debris) revolve around the Sun.

They are mostly found in the Asteroid Belt which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

These are also known as Minor planets.

Ceres, Vesta, Psyche are some famous and largest asteroids in the solar system.

2. Meteors and Meteorites

These are also known as Shooting stars.

Meteors are the small-sized rocky material which is generally formed due to asteroid collision and approaching the earth.

Because of Earth’s atmospheric layers, these small rocks burn before reaching the surface.

But there are some meteors which do not burn completely and land on Earth’s surface. They are called as Meteorites.

Willamette, Mbozi, Cape York, and El Chaco are some meteorites found on the Earth.

Lonar lake, Maharashtra in India is supposed to be created by a meteor impact in Pleistocene Epoch.

3. Comets

These are shiny, luminous “Tailed Stars”. These are rocky and metallic materials surrounded by frozen gases.

These are generally found in Kuiper Belt. They travel towards the Sun.

Their tail faces opposite of the sun and head faces towards the Sun.

They become visible when they travel close to the Sun.

Halley comet is famous which appeared last time in 1986 and which reappears after every 76 years.

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Land-form Created by river system

 When a river flows, erosion and deposition create different river landforms. The landforms differ at the source of river and at the downstream.

Land-form Created by river system:

Potholes:

.These are the deep natural underground cave formed by the erosion of rock, especially by the action of water

.These currents erode the river’s bed and create small depressions in it.

.These are drilled into the bed of a river and are cylindrical in nature.

.The diameter and depth varies from few centimeters to meters.

.These are formed due to the whirling impact of the water current in the upper course of the river.

.In India, the potholes can be observed in the river bed of the Kukadi, Krishna and Godavari river in Maharashtra.

A representational picture is given below :

V-Shaped valley:

.In mountain ranges, you will find these types of valleys

.V-shaped valleys have steep valley walls with narrow valley floors

.V-Shaped valleys are deep river valleys with steep sides that look like a letter V, a diagram shown below will give you a better understanding

.These are generally formed by the result of erosion and withering by fast flowing rivers and are generally formed in the upper course of the river.

.A deep and narrow valley with steep sides is called a Gorge.

.Many gorge are found in river Ulhas in Thane district in Maharashtra and the gorge of the river Narmada at Bhedaghat near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh are well known.

Waterfalls (Geological):

.Waterfalls are formed due to erosion of both hard rock and soft rock.

. As the river flows over the resistant rock, it falls onto the less resistant rock, eroding it and creating a greater height difference between the two rock types, producing the waterfall.

.Over thousands of years, the repeated collapse of the cap rock and retreat of the waterfall produces a gorge of recession.

 .Waterfalls exist because of difference in rock types. When a river flows, it passes through many different rock types and when a river passes from a resistant rock bed to a softer one, it erodes softer one very quickly and at the junction between the rock types, it steepen its gradient.

.The highest waterfall in the world is Angel Falls in Venezuela (~800 m).

.The largest waterfall is the Chutes de Khone (Khone Falls) on the Mekong River in Laos.

.The Niagara Falls on the river Niagara and Jog falls in Karnataka on Sharavathi river are famous waterfalls.

Meanders and Ox-bow lakes:

.Meanders are bends in a river that form as a river’s sinuosity increases.

.A meander forms when moving water in a stream erodes the outer banks and widens its valley, and the inner part of the river has less energy and deposits silt.

 .Meanders form a snake-like pattern as the river flows across a fairly flat valley floor.

.The sinuosity of a river is a measurement of how much a river varies from a straight line.

.Meanders are formed due to lateral erosion and as the erosion increases over the period of time, the meanders in the river again start flowing in the straight line.

.Meanders formation is a self-intensifying process where a greater curvature results in more erosion of the bank which in turn results in greater curvature.

.Oxbow lakes are an evolution of meanders that undergo extensive deposition and erosion

.When the meanders cut from the main course and water accumulates in this pool then it resembles the shape of the ox bow.

Fan shaped plains:

 .These are formed in the region where the Tributaries Rivers joins the main river.

.These are formed due to the deposition of material carried by the Tributaries Rivers.

.These flows come from a single point source at the apex of the fan, and over time move to occupy many positions on the fan surface.

.This deposition resembles the shape a Fan like plains

Flood Plains:

.These are formed due to the overflows of the river and flood in the nearby areas.

.It is an area of low-lying ground adjacent to a river, formed mainly of river sediments and subject to flooding.

.Floodplains are made by downstream travelling meanders.

.Slit carried by the water gets deposited in flooded areas and formed flat plains on both sides of river.

.The Gangetic plain is a flood plain.

Levees:

.It is an embankment built to prevent the overflow of a river by a ridge of sediment deposited naturally alongside a river by overflowing water.

.When a river floods, it deposits its load over the flood plain due to a dramatic drop in the river’s velocity as friction increases greatly.

.Repeated floods cause the mounds to build up and form levees.

Delta:

.Delta is a terms coined by Herodotus (The Father of History) after the Greek letter Delta because of the deltoid shaped at the mouth of the Nile river.

.A river delta is a landform that forms from deposition of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters slower-moving or standing water.

.This occurs where a river enters an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, reservoir, or (more rarely) another river that cannot transport away the supplied sediment.

.Over the period of time this deposition builds the characteristic geographic pattern of a river delta.

.Sunderbans delta of the Ganga River is the largest in the world.

Landform created by the actions of River

Glacier:

.A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years.

.On an average day a glacier moves 1 to 15 meters a day.

.There are two types of glaciers, Continental Glacier and Alpine or Mountain glacier

Landforms Created by Glacier:

Cirque:

.It is half-open steep-sided hollow at the head of a valley or on a mountainside, formed by glacial erosion.

.Cirques are created by glaciers, grinding an existing valley into a rounded shape with steep sides.

.The back wall of the cirque is like a high cliff and the floor is concave and huge in size. The total shape resembles an armchair.

.When a glacier melts completely, water accumulates in the cirque and forms a lake which is known as a tarn.

U-shaped valley:

.U-shaped valleys, or glacial troughs, are formed by the process of glaciation. They are characteristic of mountain glaciation in particular. They have a characteristic U shape, with steep, straight sides and a flat bottom

.As the erosion of the sides is greater than that of the floor, a valley is formed with vertical sides and a wide floor. This valley is called a U-Shaped valley.

.These valleys can be several thousand feet deep and tens of miles long.

.As a glacier moves downhill through a valley, usually with a stream running through it, the shape of the valley is transformed. As the ice melts and retreats, the valley is left with very steep sides and a wide, flat floor. This parabolic shape is caused by glacial erosion striving to decrease friction as much as possible

Hanging Valley:

.It is a valley which is cut across by a deeper valley or a cliff.

.Hanging valleys are often associated with valley glaciers, joining the main valley along its sides.

.Hanging Valley Landforms Have 2 Main Characteristics - a valley that leads to another valley below and  A cliff or steep wall below the meeting point

.They are the product of different rates of erosion between the main valley and the valleys that enter it along its sides.

.The tributaries are left high above the main valley, hanging on the edges, their rivers and streams entering the main valley by either a series of small waterfalls or a single impressive fall

Fjord:

.Geologically, a fjord is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by glacial erosion

.Fjords are common in Norway, Greenland and New Zealand.

Moraine

.The material transported and deposited by a glacier is known as moraine.

.a mass of rocks and sediment carried down and deposited by a glacier, typically as ridges at its edges or extremity

.Zigzag hills, with many steeps slopes, made up of long stretches of sand and gravel are called eskers.

.The oval shaped hills of lesser height are called drumlins.

.There are 4 types of moraines – Lateral, Medial, Terminal and Ground