Rocks

Rocks:

The solid part of the earth crust is called rocks.

Rocks may not always necessarily be hard.

Minerals are obtained from rocks.

Types of Rocks:

Igneous Rocks:

Igneous rocks are crystalline solids which form directly from the cooling of magma.

This is an exothermic process (it loses heat) and involves a phase change from the liquid(magma) to the solid state.

The earth is made of igneous rock - at least at the surface where our planet is exposed to the coldness of space.

Igneous rocks are given names based upon two things: composition (what they are made of) and texture (how big the crystals are).

These rocks are harder and granular.

There is no layer in igneous rocks and fossils are not found in igneous rocks.

Rocks formed by the cooling of the molten matter beneath the earth surface are called intrusiveigneous rocks and are crystalline rocks.

Sometimes the molten mater comes out on the earth surface and forming extrusive igneous rocks e.g. Obsidian, basalt.

Sedimentary rocks:

They are formed by deposition and sedimentation ofsediments over  a long period.

Sedimentary rocks are called secondary, because they are often the result of the accumulation of small pieces broken off of pre-existing rocks.

Sandstone, limestone, shale are some example of sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic rocks:

The metamorphic get their name from "meta" (change) and "morph" (form).

The nature of igneous and sedimentary rocks changes due the effects of tremendous heat or pressure and the new transformed rocks are called metamorphic rocks.

Earthquake:

The sudden tremors or shaking or the earth’s crust is called an earthquake.earthquakes:

The earth surface is made up of several plates.

When these moves plates moves, it will leads to earthquake.

Seismology is the branch of Geology which deals with the study of earthquake.

Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude of the earthquake.

Mercalli Scale is used to measure the intensity of the earthquake.

Seismic wave an elastic waves produced in the earth due to the earthquake.

The place where these seismic waves originate beneath the earth’s surface is called the focus the earthquake.

The epicentre is that point on the earth surface which is near to the focus.

Seismic waves are of three types i.e. Secondary waves, primary waves and Surface or long waves.

Volcano:

A volcano is a vent or fissure in Earth's crust through which lava, ash, rock and gases erupt.

The pouring out of the magma or molten rock through ground surface is called volcanic activities.

The opening at the earth surface through which these molten materials comes out with a large force is called Vent.

Types of Volcanic eruptions:

Central eruption:

This type of eruption is sometimes very explosive because the molten material or other materials are ejected through a narrow pipe with greater intensity.

This type of eruption leads to the formation of the conical or dome shaped hills.

Central eruption poured acidic lava.

Mt. kilimanjarao in Africa, Fujiyama in Japan and Vesuvius and mount Etna in Italy are some example of mountains formed due to central eruptions.

Fissure Eruption:

When a large crack or fissure is developed in the ground surface then the hot lava and other material pour out with small speed and slowly.

Lava spread over a large distance.

The poured lava cools down over a period of time and leads to the formation of Basalt Plateau.

In Maharashtra the fertile black regur soil has been formed from basalt rocks.

Mountains:

A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a peak.

A mountain is generally steeper than a hill.

Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism.

The height of the mountains is greater than 600m.

Types of mountains:

Block Mountains:

Block mountains are created when faults or cracks in the Earth’s crust force materials upward.

Block Mountains usually have a steep front side and then a sloping back side.

Black forest(Germany), Vindhyanchal and Satpura in India, salt range of Pakistan are some example of block mountains.

Fold Mountains:

Fold Mountains are formed when two of the Earth’s tectonic plates collide head on.

Fold mountains are wave like mountains which have numerous peaks and low.

Himalayas, Ural, Alps, Rockies, Andes etc.

Residual Mountains:

Such mountains are formed as a result of weathering. E.g. Aravali, Nilgari, Parsnath Hills.

Accumulated Mountains:

These are formed due to accumulation of sand, soil, rocks, lava etc. on the earth crust, e.g. Sand Dunes.

More from us:

Geography Miscellaneous Notes part 2 for SSC CGL

All the Important Rivers

River

River is the biggest source of water. Rivers provide us water to drink, irrigation, electricity, cook, clean things and easy & cheap transportation.  It is also a source of fresh water that flowing naturally towards an ocean, lake, sea or another river. Rivers flow in channels. The bottom of channel is called the bed and sides of the channel are called the banks. Sometimes a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water.

Rivers begin at their source in higher ground such as mountains or hills, where rain water or melting snow collects and forms tiny streams. When one stream meets another and they merge together, the smaller steam is known as a tributary. It takes many tributary streams to form a river.

As a river flows, it carries along material or debris, called its load. A river’s load includes rocks, stones and other large particles, which are washed along the river bed.  Finer particles float in the water. A river grows larger as it collects water from more tributaries along its course. The river ends at a mouth. In larger rivers there is often also a wider floodplain shaped by flood waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel.

Important Rivers in World:-

There are so many rivers in all over world. The rivers are determined by its length.  The River Nile is the longest riverin the world. It measures 6,695 kilometers from its source Burundi, along the White Nile, to its delta on the Mediterranean Sea. Officially, the shortest river is the D River, Oregan, USA, which is just 37 meters long.

The biggest river in the world is the Amazon, measured by the amount of water that flows down in it. On average 120,000 cubic meters of water flows out of its mouth every second.

The longest river of Europe is the River Volga. It flows primarily in a southerly direction through Russia into the Caspian Sea.

Important Rivers in India:

The important rivers of India are Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Indus, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Narmada and Tapti.

Ganga: Ganga is the most holy river according to Hindu. It has started from the Gangotri in the Himalayas and poured into the Bay of Bengal by travelling of around 2525 km. It is ranked 3^rd largest river in the world. There are a number of cities had been developed across the banks of Ganga like Pataliputra, Kashi, Allahabad, Varanasi, Kolkata etc. It had also created the World’s largest delta in West Bengal named as Sundarban delta.

Yamuna: Yamuna River had originated from Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas, then travels across several states and merged into the Ganga at Triveni, Allahabad. Its total length is 1376 km. Yamuna River’s water contributed nearly 70% of Delhi’s water supply. The Taj Mahal is situated on the banks of Yamuna River.

Brahmaputra: Brahmaputra River is originated from Angsi Glacier, the northen Himalayas in Tibet, then entered into the Arunachal Pradesh to Assam and then merges with the Padma river in Bangladesh. Its length is around 2900 km and plays an important role in the irrigation and transportation. It emptied into the Bay of Bengal.

Indus River: The Indus River is a historically famous in Asia. It originated from the Tibetan Plateau, and then flows through the Ladakh then entered into Pakistan and finally merge into the Arabian Sea after travelling a distance of 3180 km.

Mahanadi River: Mahanadi is a major river in the state of Chhattisgarh and Odisha. Mahanadi’s water is used in the irrigation and drinking purpose, it is also called the ruin of Orissa due its devastating floods over the years but till Hirakud Dam was constructed. Its total length is 858 km.

Godavari: Godavari is the longest river in the southern India and 2^nd largest in India after Ganga. It is originated from Maharashtra and flows through Andhra Pradesh, then merges into the Bay of Bengal after travelling a distance of 1465 km.

Krishna: The 3^rd longest river in India after Ganga and Godavari, Krishna River which is originated from Mahabaleswar in Maharashtra and flows through the state of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and finally merges into the Bay of Bengal by travelling a distance of 1400 km.

Kaveri: The Kaveri River is one of the large rivers in India which is originated from Talakaveri in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and flows through the states of Karnataka & Tamilnadu, finally merges into Bay of Bengal by travelling a distance of 765 km.

Narmada: Narmada River is the 5^th Longest in the Indian sub-continent. It is also called the Life line of Madhya pradesh due to its huge contributions. Narmada River is originated from Narmada Kund, Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh and merges into the Arabian Sea near Gujarat after travelling a distance of 1312 km.

Tapti: Tapti River is one of the major rivers in Central India. Its total length is around 724 km which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra and finally merges into the Gulf of Cambay of Arabian Sea near Gujarat.

Water Transport

India has an extensive network of inland waterways in the form of rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks. The waterways of the country have been divided into internal waterways and oceanic waterways.

The following waterways have been declared as National Waterways:

NW1- Allahabad to Haldia - 1620 Km

NW2- Sadia to Dhubri on Brahmaputra River - 891 Km

NW3- Kollam to Kottapuram - 168 km

NW4- Kakinada to Marakkannam along Godavari and Krishna river - 1095 km

NW5- Mangalgarhi to Paradeep and Talcher to Dhamara along Mahanadi and Brahmini - 623 Km

12 - Major Ports in India

Western Coast

Tidal Port – (Child of Partition) – Gujarat

Mumbai – (Busiest and biggest) - Maharashtra

JL Nehru- (Fastest growing) - Maharashtra

Marmugao – (Naval base also) – Goa

Mangalore – (Exports Kudremukh iron–ore) – Karnataka

Cochin – (Natural harbour) – Kerala

Eastern Coast

Paradip - (exports raw iron to japan) - Odisha

Vishakhapatnam – (deepest port) – Andhra Pradesh

Chennai – ( Most modern in private hands) – TamilNadu

Ennore – (Most modern in Private hands) - Tamil Nadu

Tuticorin - (Southernmost) – Tamil Nadu

Port Blair – (Strategically important) - Andaman andNicobar Islands

Air Transport

JRD Tata was the first person to take a solo flight form Mumbai to Karachi in 1931.

In 1935, the ‘Tata Air Lines’ started its operation between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937 between Mumbai and Delhi.

In 1953, all the private airline companies were nationalized and Indian Airlines and Air India came into existence.

Vayudoot Limited started in 1981 as a private air carrier and later on it merged with Indian Airlines.

International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority were merged on 1995 to form Airports Authority of India.

The Authority manages the Civil Aviation Training College at Allahabad and National Institute of Aviation Management and Research at Delhi.

12 - International Airports in India

Rajiv Gandhi International Airport – Hyderabad

Calicut International Airport – Calicut

Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport - Mumbai

Kempe Gowda International Airport – Bengaluru

Goa Airport in Vasco di Gama city - Goa

Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport – Kolkata

Thiruvananthapuram International Airport – Thiruvananthapuram

Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport – Guwahati

Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel International Airport – Ahmedabad

Indira Gandhi International Airport – Delhi

Chennai International Airport – Chennai

Shri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport – Amritsar

Important Notes on Indian Soil and Agriculture

Types of Soil

India is an Agrarian country & Soil is its prime resource. It plays a vital role in the economy of India as our industries are mainly Agro-based.

About 65 to 70% of the total population of the country is depended on agriculture.

Generally, there are six types of soil found in India

Alluvial Soil

Regur or Black Soil

Red Soil

Laterite Soil

Desert Soil

Mountain Soil

1. Alluvial Soil

Deposition of materials by sea and river is calledalluvium and the soil formed due to deposition of alluvium is called as alluvial soil.

This type of soil mainly found in the Indo-Ganga and Brahmaputra plain i.e. the whole northern plain and in some parts of the river basin in the south and some plateau region.

This soil is also found in the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Cauvery and Krishna.

Alluvial soil can be broadly categorised in two types i.e. New alluvial soil and old alluvial soil.

Old alluvial soils are found in slightly elevated areas far away from the river and are clayey and sticky.

The new alluvial soil is found in the floodplain of the river and is much fertile in comparison to the old alluvial soil.

Crops Grown: Alluvial soil is suitable for the rabi and kharif crop like cereals, cotton, oilseeds andsugarcane.

2. Regur or Black soil

The regur or black soils have developed extensively upon the Lava Plateaus of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh mainly Malwa and are formed due to volcanic activities.

These soils are very fertile and contain a high percentage of lime and a moderate amount of potash.

The type of soil is especially suited for the cultivation of cotton and hence sometimes called ‘black cotton soil.’
Crops Grown: Cotton, Jowar, Wheat, Linseed, Gram, Fruit and Vegetable.

3. Red Soil

 Red soils develop on granite and geneses rocks under low rainfall condition i.e. due to weathering of the metamorphic rocks.

These soils are red in colour due to the highconcentration of Iron Oxide.

 These soils are friable and medium fertile and found mainly in almost whole of Tamil Nadu, South-eastern Karnataka, North-eastern and South-eastern Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand the major parts of Orissa, and the Hills and Plateaus of North-east India.

These soils are deficient in Phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogenous material.

Crops Grown: Wheat, Rice, Millet's, Pulses.

4. Laterite Soil

 Laterite is a kind of clayey rock or soil formed under high temperature and high rainfall and with alternate dry and wet period,.

Laterite and lateritic soils are found in South Maharashtra, the Western Ghats in Kerala and Karnataka, at places in Odisha, small parts of Chottanagpur and  in some parts of Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and in western West Bengal (particularly in Birbhum district).

Crops Grown:

This type of soil is unsuitable for agriculture due to the high content of acidity and inability to retain moisture.

5. Desert soil

This type of soils found in Rajasthan, Haryana and the South Punjab, and are sandy.

In the absence of sufficient wash by rainwater, soils have become saline and rather unfit for cultivation.

 In spite of that cultivation can be carried on with the help of modern irrigation.

Wheat, bajra, groundnut, etc. can be grown in this soil.

This type of soil is rich in Phosphates and Calciumbut deficient in Nitrogen and humus.

6. Mountain Soil

Soil found in higher altitude on the mountain is called as Mountain soil.

The characteristics of this type of soil are changed according to the altitudes.

This type of soil is suitable for the cultivation of potatoes, fruits, tea coffee and spices and wheat.

Types of Agriculture in India

There are different types of farming activities performed in India which are as follows:

Subsistence Farming

Subsistence farming is a type of farming in which nearly all the crops or livestock raised are used to maintain the farmer and farmer’s family leaving little.

Subsistence farms usually consist of no more than a few acres, and farm technology tends to be primitive and of low yield.

Mixed farming

Mixed farming is an agricultural system in which a farmer conducts different agricultural practice together, such as cash crops and livestock

The aim is to increase income through different sources and to complement land and labour demands across the year.

Shifting cultivation

Shifting cultivation means migratory shifting agriculture.

 Under this system, a plot of land is cultivated for a few years and then, when the crop yield declines because of soil exhaustion and the effects of pests and weeds, is deserted for another area.

Here the ground is again cleared by slash-and-burn methods, and the procedure is repeated.

Shifting cultivation is predominant in the forest areas of Assam (Known as jhum), Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh (Podu).

Extensive Farming

This is a system of farming in which the farmer uses the limited amount of labour and capital on a relatively large area.

This type of agriculture is practised in countries where population size is small and land is enough.

Per acre yield is low but the overall production is in surplus due to less population.

Here machines and technology are used in farming.

Intensive Farming

This is a system of farming in which the cultivator uses a larger amount of labour and capital on a relatively small area.

This type of farming is performed in countries where the population to land ratio is high i.e. population is big and land is small.

Annually two or three types of crops are grown over the land.

Manual labour is used.

Plantation Agriculture

In this type of agriculture, cash crops are mainly cultivated.

A single crop like rubber, sugarcane, coffee, tea is grown.

These crops are major items of export.

Important Deserts of the world

Desert: A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life in desert their is less precipitation

1. Continent: Antarctica

Desert Name: Antartic

2. Continent: Asia, Europe, North America

Desert Name: Arctic desert

3. Continent: Asia

Desert Name: Karakum, Thar desert, Kyzylkum, Taklamakan, Arabian, Dasht-e Kavir, Dasht-e Lut, Gobi Desert

4. Continent: Africa

Desert Name: Kalahari, Namib, Sahara,

5. Continent: Australia

Desert Name: Gibson, Great Sandy, Great Victoria, Simpson, Tanami

6. Continent: Europe

Desert Name: Tabernas Desert

7. Continent: North America

Desert Name: Great Basin, Mojave, Sonoran

8. Continent: South America

Desert Name: Atacama, Patagonian

Important Points to be remember about Important desert of the world

Desert name: Antartic

Largest desert in the world

Largest cold desert in the world

Area: 1,38,29,430 square km

Type: polar

Desert name: Arctic desert

Second largest desert in the world

Area: 1,37,26,937 square km

Type: polar

Desert name: Gobi

Present in Asia

Area: 1,300,000 square km

Cold winter desert

Desert name: Sahara

Largest hot desert

Present in Africa

Subtropical desert

94,00,000 square km

Desert name: Atacama

The Driest Desert on the Earth

Area: 1,40,000 square km

Present in Chile

Type: Cool Coastal

Desert name: Great Basin

Type: Cold Winter

Present in US

Area: 4,92,000 square km

Types of Question Can be asked in Railways, SSC & Other Competitive Exams

Which is the largest desert of the world: Antarctica desert

Which is the largest cold desert in the world: Antarctica desert

Which is the largest hot desert of the world: Sahara desert

Which is the largest desert of India: Thar desert

Which is the largest driest desert of the world:Atacama desert (present in chile in south America)

Which is the second largest desert of the world: Arctic desert

Where is Taklamakan desert: China

Types of Winds

Winds:

The Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun.

Sometimes the wind blows gently, refreshing us. At other times, it blows strongly creating storms that cause widespread damages.

We need measurements of two quantities: direction and speed, to give a description of the wind.

Types of Winds:

Trade Winds:

A wind blowing steadily towards the equator from the north-east in the northern hemisphere or the southeast in the southern hemisphere, especially at sea.

They blow from the Subtropical High-Pressure Belt to the Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt in the tropics between 30°. North and 30° South latitudes.

They blow as the N.E. Trades in the Northern Hemisphere and as the S.E. Trades in the Southern Hemisphere.

The name "Trade" is derived from a nautical expression "to blow tread" meaning to blow along a regular path or "tread".

Westerlies:

They blow from the Sub-tropical high-Pressure Belt to the Sub-polar low-Pressure Belt in the temperate latitudes between 30° and 60°, on either side of the Equator.

They are more constant and stronger in the Southern Hemisphere because there are no large landmasses to interrupt them.

In places, they become so strong that these winds are known as the Roaring Forties or the Brave West Winds and the Furious Fifties.

The belts of the Westerlies move north and south following the Sun's movement. These are known as Westerlies because they blow out of the west.

 Polar Winds:

They blow from the Polar High-Pressure Belt to the Subpolar Low-Pressure Belt between latitudes 60° and the poles on both sides of the Equator.

They winds blow from the east to form the Polar Easterlies.

They are more regular in the Southern Hemisphere.

Polar winds are extremely cold and dry.

Climatic Winds or Periodic Winds:

These winds change their direction along with a change in time or change in climate.

Land and sea breezes and the Monsoon winds are typical examples of periodic winds.

Monosoon Winds:

Monsoon winds are seasonal winds characterized by a complete reversal in their direction from one season to another.

They blow from the sea to the land in summer.

They blow from the land to the sea in winter.

Forests:

They are of the following types:

Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests:
Such forests are found in the equatorial and the tropical regions with more than 200 cm annual rainfall. The leaves of trees in such forests are very wide. Ex-Red wood, palm etc.

Tropical Semi-Deciduous Forests:
Such forests receive rainfall less than 150 cm. Sangwan, saal, bamboo etc. are found in such forests.

Temperate mixed Forests:
Such forests are a mixture of trees and shrubs. Corks, Oak etc. are the major trees of these forests.

Coniferous Forests or Taiga:
These are evergreen forests. The trees, in these forests, have a straight trunk, conical shape with relatively short branches and small needle-like leaves. Example-Pine, Fir etc.

Tundra Forests:
Such forests are covered with snow. Only Mosses, a few sledges and Lichens grow here in the summers. This type of vegetation is chiefly confined to the northern hemisphere (e.g. in Eurasia, North America, and Greenland Coast).

Mountainous Forests: Vegetation varies according to altitude.

Pastures (or Grasslands):

They can be divided into two types:

Tropical Pastures and

Temperate Pastures

Tropical Pastures: They have different names in different countries.

Savanna in Africa,

Campos in Brazil,

Lanos in Venezuela and Columbia.

Temperate Pastures:

They are known by the following names-

Prairies in USA and Canada,

Pampas in Argentina,

Veld in South Africa,

Rangelands or Downs in Australia and Newzealand

Steppes in Eurasia (Ukraine, Russia).

Physical Divisions of the Indian Subcontinent

A chain of high mountains radiates out from thePamir Knot which lies just in the north of India.

In these mountains, the Hindukush, the Sulaiman, and the Kirthar in the East and the Himalayas in the west separate the Indian subcontinent from rest of Asia.

Indian subcontinent can be divided into following physical divisions:

The Great Mountain Wall of the North

The Great Northern Plains

The Great Peninsular Plateau

The Coastal Plains

The Great Indian Desert

The Island Groups.

The Great Mountain wall of the North:

The Himalayas, the highest mountain wall of the world, are situated on the northern boundary of India like an arc.

From west to east the Himalayas are 2500 km long. The average breadth of the Himalayas is between 250 km to 400 km.

Mount Everest, the highest peak in the word, lies in these mountains in Nepal.

Division of the Himalayas

The Himalayas consist of three parallel mountain ranges:

(i) The Greater Himalayas

(ii) The Lesser Himalayas and

(iii) The Outer Himalayas.

The Greater Himalayas (or Himadri)

This is the loftiest of the three ranges of Himalayas.

Mount Everest lies in this range.

These snow-covered mountains give birth to many glaciers.

The Ganga originates from this glacier.

The Leasser Himalayas (for the Himachal Himalayas):

South of the Greater Himalayas, the range also lies parallel to it from west to east.

This ranges 60 to 80 km wide and its average height ranges between 3500 to 4500 meters.

Tourist centers like Shimla, Mussoorie, and Nainitalare situated in this range

The Outer Himalayas (or Shiwaliks):

This is the southernmost and the third parallel range of the Himalayas with an average height of 900 to 1200 meters.

Its breadth is only 10 to 15 km. Shivalik range is broader in the west.

Heights of Major Mountain Peaks in India

*represents the mountains situated in PAK.

The Great Nothern Plains:

The Northern plains are divided into three sub-divisions. These are the Punjab and Haryana plains. The Ganga plains and the Brahmaputra valley.

The Ganga plains form the largest lowland drained by thy Ganga and its tributaries.

The Yamuna is the most important tributary of the Ganga.

The Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Tista are other tributaries of the Ganga.

The Sone and the Damodar are tributaries of the Ganga while the Chambal and the Betwa are tributaries of the Yamuna from the peninsular plateau.

The Ganga plain has an extremely gentle slope. Parts of the plain are subject to floods in the rainy season. In the lower course, the Ganga divides itself into tributaries to form a large delta along with the Brahmaputra.

The Punjab and Haryana plains represent a part of the Indus basin.

A low watershed separates these plains from the Ganga plains.

The Great Pensinsular Plateau:

Anamudi or Anaimudi (2695 m) is the highest peak of the Peninsula.

The Deccan plateau includes the area to the south of the Vindhyas.

The western edge of the plateau rises steeply from the Arabian Sea to form the Western Ghats (which includes the Shahydri).

The Deccan plateau slopes gently towards the east. The surface of the plateau is dissected into a rolling upland by a number of rivers.

The elevation ranges from 300 to 900 meters.

The eastern edge of the plateau is known as theEastern Ghats.

The north-western region of the Deccan plateau is covered by nearly horizontal sheets of lava.

This region is called 'Deccan trap region'. The Deccan plateau is drained by many long east flowing rivers.

These rivers originate in the Western Ghats, flow towards the east and enter the Bay of Bengal.

The Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna and the Cauvery are the major rivers that have built deltas along the coast.

The Narmada and the Tapti rivers are west flowing.

Both the rivers enter the Arabian Sea along the Gujarat coast.

These rivers do not have deltas.

Major Plateaus: Marwar Upland, Central Highland, Bundelkhand, Malwa Plateau, Baghelhand, Chhotanagpur Plateau (Hazaribagh Plateau, Ranchi Plateau, and Raj Mahal Hills), Meghalaya Plateau, Deccan Plateau, Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka Plateau, Telengana Plateau, Chhatisgarh Plain.

The Coastal Plains

Narrow strips of flat land on eastern and western coasts are known as the East Coastal Plain and theWest Coastal Plain respectively.

The West Coastal Plain

This plain which lies between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats spreads from Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.

It is broader in the north and narrower in the south. This uneven plain has been dissected by many fast-flowing rivers.

Its northern part from Gujarat to Goa is called Konkan, while southern part from Goa to Kanyakumari is known as Malabar. Several lagoons (salt water lakes separated from the main sea by sandbars and spits) are found on the coastal plain.

Important ports developed on its coast from north to south are Kandla, Mumbai, New Jawahar Port Mumbai, Marmagao, Mangalore, and Cochin.

The East Coastal Plain:

This broader coastal plain spreads along the Bay of Bengal from Odisha in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.

Its northern part is known as Northern Circar plainsand the southern part is called Coromandel Coast.Rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery form deltas on this plain.

This coast is famous for rice cultivation.

A large number of lagoons are also found here.

Chilka and Pulicat lakes are fine examples of lagoons on our east coast.

The Great Indian Desert:

It lies to the west of the Aravali range.

It extends over major part of Rajasthan and Sindhi in Pakistan.

This desert does not get much rain as the Aravali range run parallel to the south-western monsoon winds.

It is in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal current.

Lake Sambhar is found here.

The Island Groups

Lakshadweep is a group of 36 coral islands in the Arabian Sea.

It is located 300 km to the west of the coast of Kerala.

Andaman and Nicobar Island are a group of about 324 islands.

Most of these islands are uninhabited.

Andaman and Nicobar islands are separated by the Ten Degree Channel because 10°N latitude passes through this place.

Important Facts of Solar System

We live on the planet named ‘Earth’. Likewise, Earth also exists in its home with other 7 planets, only star ‘Sun’ and many other small objects called asteroids, comets, dwarf planets, meteors etc. So basically the Solar system is a system of Sun, 8 planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, meteors and comets under the gravitational influence of the Sun.

Origin

There are 3 to 4 major theories of the evolution of the universe and ultimately of the solar system. The prominent theory among all of these is Big Bang theory.

According to this theory proposed by Georges Lemaitre, the universe is evolved from a small singularity and then expands over the next 13.8 billion years and still expanding.

It led to the formation of many billions of galaxies, solar systems, stars etc.

Our solar system lies in a spiral-shaped galaxy called ‘Milky Way’. The nearest galaxy to us is ‘Andromeda’.

Generally, there is a Black hole at the centre of every galaxy. ‘Sagittarius A’ is the black hole at the centre of Milky Way.

Solar System

In our solar system, 8 planets and many other celestial bodies revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.

The dwarf planet named Pluto was removed from the list of the planets by the International Astronomical Union in 2006.

Sun is the powerhouse of the solar system. It is the only source of energy in the solar system.

Planet Mercury is nearest to the sun while Neptune is the farthest planet from the sun.

There is an asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Planets inside the belt are distinctly different from those outside in terms of size, mass, and composition etc.

Planets inside the belt are called as Terrestrial planets and they are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Planets outside the best are called as Jovian planets and they are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Terrestrial planets are nearer to the sun, with metallic minerals and rock crust, with a thin atmosphere and have less number of natural satellites. While Jovian planets are away from Sun, made up of hot gases, have rings around them, and have a large number of natural satellites.

Facts about Sun and Planets

1. Sun

The only star in our solar system and powerhouse of the solar system.

Composed of Hydrogen (73%), Helium (25%) gases and other metals. Sun carries almost 99% mass of our solar system.

Approximately 15 crore Kilometres further away from Earth. It takes around 8 minutes 30 seconds for light at the speed of 3 lakh Km/sec to reach the earth.

Temperature at surface= 5800 K or 5600 degree Celsius.

Temperature at the centre= 15.7 million K

2. Mercury

Closest planet to the Sun and very hot planet.

Smallest planet in the solar system with a diameter of 4900 Km.

Fastest Planet with speed of 172500 Km per hour to complete revolution around Sun in 88 days.

The planet with no water and gases like Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide.

3. Venus

Hottest planet in the solar system with the surface temperature of 478 degree Celsius.

Also known as “Earth’s Twin”. It is because of similarity in size and mass between Venus and Earth.

One of the two planets in the solar system which rotate around the axis in a Clockwise direction.

Brightest Star in the Solar system. It can be seen in morning and evening with open eyes. So known as “Evening Star” and “Morning Star”.

4. Earth

The only Planet to give support to life with a pleasant atmosphere.

Also known as “Blue Planet” because of the presence of water on it.

It has one natural satellite named “Moon”.

5. Mars

Known as “Red Planet” because of Iron-rich red soil.

Second smallest planet in the solar system after Mercury.

Has two natural moons “Phobos” and “Deimos”.

Has thin atmosphere and surface with valleys, craters, deserts and ice caps etc.

“Olympus Mons” – Largest volcano and the tallest mountain in solar system lies on Mars.

6. Jupiter

Largest planet of the solar system with the shortest rotation

Has atmosphere filled with Hydrogen, Helium and other gases

The third brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus.

Great Red Spot, a giant storm in the solar system exists on this planet.

Has at least 69 moons, including 4 large Galilean Moons “Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto” which were discovered by Galileo. “Ganymede” is the largest among them.

It has an unclear ring around it.

7. Saturn

Second largest planet in the solar system and a gas giant.

Has bright and concentric rings around it which are made up of tiny rocks and pieces of Ice.

Saturn can float on water because it has less densitythan water.

Has at least 62 moons and Titan is the largest among them.

8. Uranus

Has the third- largest planetary radius and fourth largest planetary mass in the Solar system.

Greenish in colour.

Discovered by William Herschel in 1781.

Known as “Ice Giant”. The atmosphere of Uranus is composed of Hydrogen and Helium primarily, but it also contains more water, ammonia etc.

Has coldest planetary atmosphere in the solar system.

Rotates clockwise on its axis like Venus but unlike other planets

Has at least 25 moons. Famous moons- Miranda, Ariel and Umbriel

9. Neptune

Farthest planet from the Sun.

It is also “Ice Giant”. Atmosphere primarily composed of Hydrogen and Helium.

Bluish in colour because of Methane.

Fourth largest planet and the third most- massive planet in the solar system

Discovered by Johann Galle and Urbain Le Verrier in 1846. The only planet in the solar system found by Mathematical Predictions.

Has known 14 satellites. Famous moon – Triton.

10. Pluto

As per the new definition of Planets determined by International Astronomical Union (IAU), Pluto has been omitted from the list of planets in 2006.

Pluto is considered as a dwarf planet (size between planets and asteroids) now and it is a member of Kuiper Belt.

Kuiper Belt is a spherical boundary outside the orbit of Neptune containing a number of asteroids, rocks, and comets.

Other Space Objects

1. Asteroids

These are small objects; rocks (mostly debris) revolve around the Sun.

They are mostly found in the Asteroid Belt which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

These are also known as Minor planets.

Ceres, Vesta, Psyche are some famous and largest asteroids in the solar system.

2. Meteors and Meteorites

These are also known as Shooting stars.

Meteors are the small-sized rocky material which is generally formed due to asteroid collision and approaching the earth.

Because of Earth’s atmospheric layers, these small rocks burn before reaching the surface.

But there are some meteors which do not burn completely and land on Earth’s surface. They are called as Meteorites.

Willamette, Mbozi, Cape York, and El Chaco are some meteorites found on the Earth.

Lonar lake, Maharashtra in India is supposed to be created by a meteor impact in Pleistocene Epoch.

3. Comets

These are shiny, luminous “Tailed Stars”. These are rocky and metallic materials surrounded by frozen gases.

These are generally found in Kuiper Belt. They travel towards the Sun.

Their tail faces opposite of the sun and head faces towards the Sun.

They become visible when they travel close to the Sun.

Halley comet is famous which appeared last time in 1986 and which reappears after every 76 years.

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Atmosphere

An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body of sufficient mass that is held in place by the gravity of the body.

Atmosphere

The envelope of air that completely surrounds the earth is known as atmosphere.

The atmosphere extends to about 1000 km from the surface of the earth. But 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is found within 32 km.

This is because the atmosphere is held by the gravitational pull of the earth.

Composition of the Atmosphere

(i) Nitrogen - 78%

(ii) Oxygen - 21%

(iii) Argon -0.93%

(iv) Carbondioxide - 0.03%

(v)Neon - 0.0018%

(vi) Helium - 0.0005%

(vii) Ozone - 0.0006%

(viii) Hydrogen - 0.00005%

Carbon dioxide is present in small quantity in the atmosphere

It is an important constituent of air because it has the ability to absorb heat and thus keep the atmosphere warm, thereby, balancing the heat of the earth.

Dust intercepts and reflects incoming insolation.

The polluted particles present in the air not only absorb the larger amount of insolation but also greatly absorb the terrestrial radiation.

Dust in the atmosphere contributes to the red and orange colour of sunrise and sunset.

Layers of the Atmosphere

There are five distinct layers of the atmosphere -

(a) Troposphere

(b) Stratosphere

(c) Mesosphere

(d) Thermosphere

(e) Exosphere

Layers of the Atmosphere in details

(a) Troposphere

This is the first layer of the atmosphere. It extends to a height of 18 km at the equator and 8 km at the poles.

In this layer temperature decreases with height. This is due to the fact that the density of air decreases with height and so the heat absorbed is less. It contains more than 90% of gases in the atmosphere.

Since most of the water vapour form clouds in this layer, all weather changes occur in the troposphere("tropo" means "change").

The height at which the temperature stops decreasing is called tropopause. Here the temperature may be as low as -58 degree Celsius.

(b) Stratosphere

This is the second layer of the atmosphere. It extends from the tropopause to about 50 km.

Temperature increases due to the absorption of the ultraviolet radiations of the Sun by Ozone present in this layer. The temperature slowly increases to 4-degree celsius.

This layer is free from clouds and associated weather phenomena. Hence, it provides ideal flying conditions for large jet planes.

(c) Mesosphere

Above the stratosphere lies the Mesosphere.

The mesosphere extends to a height of 80 km.

Here the temperature decreases again, falling as low as - 90-degree celsius.

The end of this layer is known as the mesopause.

(d) Thermospher

This layer extends to a height of about 640 km

This increase in temperature is due to the fact that the gas molecules in this layer absorb the X-rays and Ultraviolet radiation of the Sun.

The electrically charged gas molecules of the thermosphere reflect radio waves from the Earth back into the space. Thus, this layer also helps inlong distance communication.

The thermosphere also protects us from meteors and obsolete satellite because its high Temperature burns up nearly all the debris coming towards the Earth.

(e) Exosphere

The exosphere extends beyond the thermosphere up to 960km.

It gradually merges with interplanetary space.

The temperatures in this layer range from about 300 degree Celsius to 1650 degree Celsius.

This layer contains only traces of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, argon and helium because the lack of gravity allows the gas molecules to escape easily into space.

Save Earth Save Life

Save Earth

We live on planet earth. We get everything for our life from mother earth. We should save our planet earth to ensure that our future generations get a safe environment.

How to save the earth?

We can save our planet earth by saving our trees, natural vegetation, natural resources, water, electricity. We can take measures for controlling environmental pollution and global warming.

Save trees. We should plant new trees plant trees. The schemes afforestation and reforestation should be wholeheartedly supported.

Save natural vegetation. We should use less paper. We can make arrangement for recycling of used paper and other natural products. Plants and trees covers and holds the surface of the earth.

Save natural resources. We all know that the supply of natural resources such as minerals, stones, coal, oil, etc. are limited. We can save electricity by putting off the lights when not in use. Or we can switch to fans instead of air conditioners during nights.

Save water. Water is life. It is the basic necessity for every human being living on this planet. We can stop throwing wastes into open water bodies. At home, we can use water cautiously and ensure that it doesn’t get wasted. Remember, a large many people are still deprived of safe pure water. “Be the change that you want to see in this world.”

Save environment from pollution. Don’t pollute water by not throwing wastes into waterborne.  Minimize air pollution by reducing harmful emissions. Use less car, less machines, less electricity, and less plastic goods.Eat organic foods.

Save earth from global warming. Industries should regularly check that their machines are emitting smoke within permissible limits. Ensure that wastes are discharged only after treatment.

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• Way to Stop Global Warming
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GreenHouse Gases

What are greenhouse gases?
 A greenhouse gas is a gaseous compound present in the atmosphere that is able to trap heat.
Greenhouse gases are gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect. This is the name for the warming of the earth when certain gases trap the sun’s rays in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases are gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide, water-vapor, ozone, nitrous oxide, and sulfides, sulfurous compounds, CFC (chlorofluorocarbons), methane and some some substances found in aerosols.

Why are they called greenhouse gases?
These are called greenhouse gases because they trap heat within the earth’s atmosphere and cause the greenhouse effect.
Such gases absorb infrared radiation resulting in a surge in earth’s temperature. The greenhouse effect is the name for the warming up of the earth due to changes in its atmosphere.

Are greenhouse gases harmful? Greenhouse gases lead to environmental pollution and global warming. This is all part of the wide phenomenon of climate change. Such gases are harmful gases in the atmosphere. The adverse effects that they have on climate and the planet in general includes, rising sea levels, melting ice caps and climate change.
A greenhouse gas gives out radiation within the range of thermal infrared. The common term for infrared energy is heat, and thus the warming effect.
The greenhouse effect must be combated by using less greenhouse gases as it poses a substantial threat to the survival of all species on earth including humans.

Where do greenhouse gases come from?
 The main source of greenhouse gases is fossil fuel combustion. A large amount of the harmful levels of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere come from human industrial activity. This is demonstrated by the levels of these gases in the atmosphere increased drastically during and after the Industrial Revolution in the 1900s.

Causes: Key causes of greenhouse gases include burning fossil fuels (which produces CO2 and other chemicals), agriculture (nitrous oxide is released when fertilizers are sprayed onto crops and the use of coolants and refrigerants (which contain high levels of CFCs).

Solution: The reduction of the emission of greenhouse gases can be achieved by:

1. Burn fewer fossil fuels.
2. Using clean and green energy.
3. Driving fuel-efficient vehicles.
4. Planting trees.
5. Using environment-friendly farming methods.

Conclusion: Greenhouse gas is the primary cause of global warming and reducing its emission into the atmosphere can curb climate change and create a better planet. We must all do our bit to stop pumping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

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• Green House Gases

Way to Stop Global Warming

Global warming is the name for the process by which the earth is warming up due to the presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere as a whole is getting warmer.
In addition, the temperature of the seas are getting warmer. And, the hottest parts of the earth are getting even hotter.
So, in sum, global warming is the warming of the earth surface including seas, land, etc. The greenhouse gases absorbs infrared radiation to cause an increase in the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and the environment.

How to stop global warming? Read below the various ways to control and stop global warming.

1. Reduce CO” emissions: CO2 is a major cause of global warming.
2. Burn fewer fossil fuels: coal, oil and so on. Burning of fossil fuels cause the greenhouse effect.
3. Fly less often: to reduce emission of greenhouse gases.
4. Recycle: as often as possible.
5. Reuse items: instead of buying new things all the time.
6. Reduce aerosol use: to preserve the ozone.
7. Educate others about the dangers of global warming: so they take similar action.
8. Campaign: get governments and big companies to change their ways.
9. Shop responsibly: from environmentally friendly brands.
10. Conserve water: to conserve energy.
11. Don’t waste food: to put less strain on resources.
12. Plant trees: take part in reforestation projects.
13. Think of the future: think of future generations.
14. Drive less: to reduce emissions.
15. Insulate your home: to save energy.
16. Use fewer pesticides and aerosols.
17. Give money to environmentalist charities.

Conclusion: All of our individual actions can add up to stop global warming. We can all take action now!

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Impact and Effect of Acid Rain

The harmful impact and effect of Acid Rain have been briefly discussed below:

Effects on human health: Humans are vulnerable to acid rain. Thousands of premature deaths are caused by sulfate laden air due to acid rain annually. Millions of people are drinking water with high lead levels. Lead (Pb) is one of the factors responsible for high blood-pressure and heart attacks in adults and brain damage in children. Harmful effects of acid rain on human are Chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema, (related to lungs) cancer.

Damages soil: Acid rain leach out soil nutrients, adversely affects the properties of soil, causes damage to soil fertility, damages vegetation including cropland and forests, makes the leaves of plants yellow and brown. This is how acid rain impacts the productivity of forests, grasslands and crops.

Damage to aquatic ecosystems: Acid infection can be natural as well as anthropogenic. It kills plankton, fish and adversely affects productivity of aquatic ecosystems.

Acidity in soil and water due to acid rain leads to increase in dissolved metals especially aluminum. Aluminum affects the grills of fish. On account of respiratory failure they die due to heavy metals as Al (Aluminum), Zn (Zinc), Mn (Manganese), Cd (Cadmium), Pb (Lead), Cu (Copper) added in water increases acidity beyond permissible limits.

Damage to ecosystem (forest): It is difficult to have a quantitative effect of acid rain on ecosystem. However, intense sulfur dioxide pollution around smelters is known to cause death of many kinds of trees and other vegetation.

The typical impact of Acid Rain are as follow:

1. Yellowing and browning of needles and leaves.
2. Decreased annual increment.
3. Death of herbaceous vegetation.
4. Active shedding of needles and leaves while still green.
5. Death and diseased trees.

Effects on microorganisms and wildlife: Proliferation of microbial species governed by pH value. There are three pH value of water: acidic, neutral and alkaline. Many bacteria and protozoa have pH optima near neutrality; most fungi prefer an acid environment and many blue-green bacteria prefer an alkaline environment. So pH determines whether any microbial species can proliferate in a particular environment and the rate at which it can reproduce.

Effect on Wildlife: The impact of Acid Rain is also seen in wildlife. Acid rain carry metals bound in soil and sediment released into the aquatic environment. The toxic substances so discharged are ingested by wildlife, like birds that feed in such environment. This is a direct effect of acid rain. The indirect effects of acid rain are loss of food and habitat resources. The elimination of fish from lake during the breeding season is one example. Fish population has decreased tremendously. The fish-less area (lakes) are now fish grave-yards. Many bacteria and blue algae are killed due to acidification, thus disrupting ecological balance.

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