Business Communication – Introduction Notes

Business Communication is the ability of a group of individuals to speak the same language internally and externally towards business promotion. Business communication is one of the most important tool for an organization to succeed in a professional manner.

History Of Education In South Asia

The remnants of the library of Nalanda, built in the 5th century BCE by Gupta kings. It was rebuilt twice after invasion, first after an invasion from the Huns in the 5th century BCE and then after an invasion from the Gaudasin the 7th century CE but abandoned after the third invasion by Turkic invaders in the 12th century.

Takshasila (in modern-day Pakistan) was the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from possibly 8th Century BCE, and it is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not in modern sense, since teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda university in eastern India. Nalanda was the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of university. There all subjects were taught in Ariano -páli Language.^[159]

Secular institutions cropped up along Buddhist monasteries. These institutions imparted practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE. The important urban centres of learning were Nalanda (in modern-day Bihar) and Manassa in Nagpur, among others. These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as Buddhist Páli literature, logic, páli grammar, etc. Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher, was among the most famous teachers, associated with founding of Mauryan Empire.

Sammanas and Brahmin gurus historically offered education by means of donations, rather than charging fees or the procurement of funds from students or their guardians. Later, stupas, temples also became centres of education; religious education was compulsory, but secular subjects were also taught. Students were required to be brahmacaris or celibates. The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to perform. The priest class, the Sammanas, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the various aspects of warfare. The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the working class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational advantages.

complete detail of census 2011

Census is nothing but a process of collecting, compiling, analyzing, evaluating, publishing and disseminating statistical data regarding the population. It covers demographic, social and economic data and are provided as of a particular date. Census is useful for formulation of development policies and plans and demarcating constituencies for elections. The Census of India has been conducted 15 times, As of 2011. It has been conducted every 10 years, beginning in 1871.

The Revolt of 1857

Political Causes

The policy of Doctrine of Lapse

Economic Causes

heavy taxation, evictions, Discriminatory Tariff Policy against Indian products and destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit peasants, artisans and small zimindars.

Military Discrimination as Indian soldiers were paid low salaries, they could not rise above the rank of subedar and were racially insulted.

Grievances of Sepays: The introduction of Enfield rifles, andits cartridge of which was greased with animal fat, provided the spark.

British social reforms ( widow remarriage, abolitionof sati, education for girls, Christan missionaries).

Cause of Failure

The Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja of Jodhpur, Scindia of Gwalior the Holkar of Indore, the rulers of Patiala, Sindh and Kashmir and the Rana of Nepal provided active support  to the British.

Comparative lack of efficient leadership.

Impact of the Revolt

The control of indian administration was passed on to the British Crown by the Government of India Act, 1858.

Reorgansiation of the army.

After the revolt, the British pursued the Policy of Divide and rule.

Chalukas Dynasty and Pallava Dynasty

THE CHALUKYAS

History of the Chalukyas, the Karnataka rulers, can be classified into three eras:

1) The early western era (6th -8th century), the Chalukyas of Badami (vatapi);

2) The later western era (7th - 12th century), the Chalukyas of Kalyani;

3) The eastern chalukya era (7th - 12th century), the chalukyas of Vengi.

1) Pulakesin I (543-566) was the first independent ruler of Badami with Vatapi in Bijapur as his capital.

2) Kirthivarma I (566-596) succeeded him at the throne. When he died, the heir to the throne, Prince Pulakesin II, was just a baby and so the king‘s brother, Mangalesha (597-610), was crowned the caretaker ruler. Over the years, he made many unsuccessful attempts to kill the prince but was ultimately killed himself by the prince and his friends.

3) Pulakesin II (610-642), the son of Pulakesin I, was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and the most famous of the Chalukyan kings.His reign is remembered as the greatest period in the history of Karnataka. He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada.

4) After conquering the Kosalas and the Kalingas, and eastern Chalukyan dynasty was inaugurated by his(Pulakeshin II) brother Kubja Vishnuvardana.

5) By 631, the Chalukyan empire extended from sea to sea. However, Pulkeshin II was defeated and probably killed in 642, when the Pallavas under Narsimhavarma I attack on their capital & captured the chalukyan capital at Badami.

6) The Chalukyas rose to power once again under the leadership of Vikramaditya I (655-681), who defeated his contemporary Pandya, Pallava, Cholas and Kerala rulers to establish the supremacy of the Chalukyan empire in the region.

7) Vikramaditya II (733-745) defeated the Pallava king Nandivarma II to capture a major portion of the Pallava kingdom.

8) Vikramaditya II‘s son, Kirtivarma II (745), was disposed by the Rastrakuta ruler, Dhantidurga, who established the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

PALLAVA DYNASTY

1) The Pallava dynasty emerged in South India at a time when the Satavhana dynasty was on the decline.

2) Shivaskandavarman is said to have been the founder of the Pallava dynasty.

3) During their reign, the Pallava rulers made Kanchi their capital.

4) The noteworthy rulers during this period were:

Simhavarama I Sivaskkandavarma I, Veerakurcha, Shandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, Simhavarma II, and Vishnugopa.

Note: Vishugopa is said to have been defeated in battle by  Samudragupta after which the Pallavas become weaker.

5) It was Simhavishnu, the son of Simhavarma II, who eventually crushed the Kalabhras‘ dominance in 575 AD and re-established his kingdom.

6) In 670, Parameshwaravarma I came to the throne and restricted the advance of the Chlukyan king Vikramaditya I. However, the Chalukyas joined hands with the Pandya king Arikesari Maravarma, another promients enemy of the Pallavas, and defeated Parameshwaravarma I.

7) Parameshwaravarma I died in 695 and was succeeded by Narasimhavarma II, a peace living ruler.He is also remembered for building the famous Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi. He died grieving his elder son‘s accidental death in 722.

8) His youngest son, Parameshwaravarma II, came to power in 722.He died in 730 with no heirs to the throne, which left the Pallava kingdom in a state of disarray.

9) Nandivarma II came to power after some infighting for the throne among relatives and officials of the kingdom. Nandivarma married the Rashtrakuta princess Reetadevi, and re-established the Pallava kingdom.

10) He was succeeded by Dantivarma (796-846) who ruled for 54 long years. Dantivarma was defeated by the Rastrakuta king, Dantidurga, and subsequently by the Pandyas. He was succeeded by Nandivarma III in 846.

Gupta Empire and it's Details

Gupta Empire

The start of Gupta Empire is considered by many historian from the reign of Maharaja Shrigupta.

Chandragupta-I was the first powerful ruler of Gupta Empire and ascended the throne in 320 AD.

The Gupta Period from 320 AD to 550 AD is also known as the Golden Age of India.

In the Gupta period India attained the peak of glory in every aspects starting from science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy.

Emperors of Gupta Empire

Shrigupta and Ghatotkacha. The reign of Maharaja Shrigupta (240 AD to 280 AD) is considered by many historians to be the starting point of Gupta Empire.

Ghatotkacha succeeded his father Shrigupta and ruled from 280AD to 319 AD.

Chandragupta I

Chandragupta I was the son of Ghatotkacha and succeeded his father. He was the first powerful king of the dynasty. He ruled the Empire from 320 AD to 335 AD.

Chandragupta I adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja: meaning King of Kings.

He married princess Kumaradevi of neighboring kingdom Lichchhavi and gained the control of the territory of north Bihar.

The starting of the reign of Chandragupta-I is considered by many historians as the beginning of Gupta era.

Samudragupta and Chandragupta II

Samudragupta,succeeded his father Chandragupta I and ruled the Gupta dynasty for about 45 years from 335 AD to 380 AD. He is also known as 'Napolean of India'.

Many historians believe that Chandragupta II was nominated by his father Samudragupta as the next heir of Gupta Empire.But Ramagupta,the eldest son of Samudragupta succeeded his father and became the emperor.

Chandragupta II killed him and ascended the throne. He was an extremely powerful emperor. Chandragupta II is most commonly known as Vikramaditya,ruled the Gupta Empire from 380 AD to 413 AD.

Other Emperors

Kumaragupta I,the son of Chandragupta II succeeded his father and ruled the dynasty till 455 AD. After Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta succeeded his father.

He is considered to be the last of the great Gupta emperors.

He also adopted the title of Vikramaditya.

After Skandagupta, the Gupta dynasty didn't get any powerful ruler and finally the dynasty was overpowered by the Vardhana ruler Harshavardhana.

Note:Some of the weak rulers who ruled after Skandagupta were, Purugupta, Kumaragupta II, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta III, Vishnugupta, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.

Fa-hien's India Visit

Fa-hien was the first Chinese pilgrim who visited India during the reign of Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.

Nine Gems or Navaratnas

At the time of Vikramadityas reign, the glory of Gupta Empire reached its peak.

A circle of famous nine persons known as Nine Gems or Navaratnas were present in the court of Vikramaditya.

The group comprised of

Kalidasa

Vetala Bhatta

Varahamihira

Vararuchi

Amarasimha

Dhanvantari

kshapanak

Shanku

Ghatakarpura

Kalidasa

Kalidasa was a famous Sanskrit writer and poet in the court of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).

Kalidasa was the author of three famous plays.

Abhijnanasakuntalam : tells the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala

Malavikagnimitram tells the story love of King Agnimitra with Malavika

Vikramorvasiyam tells the love story of King Pururavas and celestial fairy Urvashi

Kalidasa was also the author of two famous Sanskrit epic poems:

Raghuvamsa ("Raghu Dynasty ") and

Kumarasambhava.

Vetala Bhatta

Vetala Bhatta was a Brahmin in the court of Vikramaditya.

He is known for his contribution of "Nitipradipa ".

Varahamihira

Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of Gupta era.

He is famously known for his great work Pancha Siddhantika,a book on mathematical astronomy.

His other important contribution to the Indian Sanskrit literature is the Brihat-Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and other subjects of human interest.

Vararuci

Vararuci was one of the nine Gems in the court of Chandragupta II of Gupta era.

Amarasimha

Amarasimha was one of the nine Gems in the court of Vikramaditya of Gupta era.

He is notably known for his famous Sanskrit thesaurus Amarakosha.

It is also known as Namalinganushasana.

Dhanvantari

Dhanvantari is regarded as one of the worlds first surgeons and medical practitioner from Gupta era.

He is considered as the origin exponent of Ayurveda.

He is also worshipped as the God of Medicine.

Sushruta, the author of famous Sushruta Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari.

He is also credited for the discovery of the antiseptic properties of turmeric and the preservative properties of salt.

Dhanvantri is considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery.

Dynasties of Ancient India

Indo Greeks

First to invade India were the Greeks who were called Indo-Greeks.

The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menanderwith his Capital at Sakala in Punjab (Modern Sialkot)

The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.

Menander was converted into a Buddhist by Buddhist monk Nagasena (Nagarjuna)

Demitrius, the king of Bacteria invaded India about 190BC. He is considered as Second Alexander (But the Indian ruler who accepted the name second Alexander (Sikandar-i-sani) was Alauddin Khilji) Indo-Greeks were the first to introduce military
governorship in India.

Kushan Empire

Kujula Kadphises is considered to be the founder of Kushan Empire. He established the kingdom by unifying the disparate Yuezhi tribes of ancient Bactria in the early 1st century AD and expanded its territory of present day Afghanistan, Pakistan, southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

He established the capital of Kushan Empire near Kabul.

During the period of first to mid-third centuries AD, Kushan expanded rapidly and represented as a major power in Central Asia and northern India.

The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka. He became the ruler in 78 AD and started Saka Era in 78 AD.

The Capital of Kanishka was Peshawar or Purushapura. Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir.

The Gandhara School of Art received royal patronage under the Kushans. Kanishka patronised Mahayana form of Buddhism.

The first month of Saka era is Chaithra and the last month is Phalguna.

Vasudeva was the last great king of Kushana Dynasty.

Kushana school of art is also referred to as the Mathura school.

Sunga Dynasty

Sunga dynasty was established by Pusyamitra Sunga in 185 BC after assassinating the last Mauryan emperor Brihadratha.

The capital of Sunga Dynasty was Pataliputra of ancient Magadha.

Kalidasa’s drama Malavikagnimitram is about the love story of Pushyamitra’s son Agnimitra and

Last King of sunga dynasty was Devabhuti. he ruled the kingdom from 83 to 73 BC

Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period. The ancient Sanskrit grammar, Ashtadayayi by Panini was composed during the period of Sunga Period.

Kanva Dynasty

Kanva dynasty was founded by Vasudeva Kanva in 72 BC after defeating the last Sunga ruler Devabhuti.

This dynasty ruled for a period of 45 years.

Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susuman were the rulers of Kanva dynasty.

Satavahana Dynasty

Satavahanas were the most powerful ruling dynastyafter the Mauryas.

Satavahanas were also known as Andhras.

Satavahanas were the Indian rulers who prefixed their mother’s name along with their names.

Most important Satavahana ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni. Satavahanas were Brahmanas.

Nagarjuna Konda and Amaravati in Andhrapradesh became important seats of Buddhist culture under the Satavahanas.

The two common structures of Satavahanas were the temple called Chaitya and the monastery called Vihara.

The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit

The Cholas

Vijayalaya was the founder of the Chola empire. He was a feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi.

Raja Raja I (985 - 1014) adopted the titles of Arumudivarman, Mammudichodadeva, Jaykonda, Marthanda Chola, Mamudichola etc. He built the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavur. which is called the RajaRajeswara temple.

Rajendra I led an expedition to North India, defeated the Pala ruler Mahipala I and adtoped the title, Gangaikondachola and established a new Capital, Gangai Konda Cholapuram. Cholas maintained a well established local – self government system. Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha - and Nagaram were the assemblies for local administration.

The Uttaramerur inscription of Dantivarman Pallava gives details about the local self government.